Section  I - Written testimony

February 25, 2025

The Honorable Chairman
Senator Aric Putnam
3215 Senate Office Building
Saint Paul, Minnesota 55155

Member Gene Dornink
Member Heather Gustafson
Member Robert J. Kupec
Member Nathan Wesenberg
Member Zack Duckworth
Member Mary K. Kunsel
Member Judy Seeberger
Member Bruce Anderson

Members of the Senate Veterans Committee,

I am writing to highlight serious problems with Senate File 568 recently introduced in the Minnesota State Senate regarding the redefinition of a Veteran. In 2018, I forwarded remedies to Senator Amy Klobuchar regarding serious issues in the Federal Hmong Burial Bill language, which was later included and passed in the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2018 on March 23, 2018.

The flawed provisions of the Act were remedied by adopting most of the Coalition Asian Veterans of the Vietnam War (CAVWV)’s recommendations in 2024—seven years later. You may review the research and remedies at cavwv.org/hmong-burial-controversy.

The current redefinition of a veteran as defined in MN SF 568 will likely create serious complications for the Minnesota Department of Veterans Affairs. It relies on the Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act of 2000 (Public Law 106-207, U.S.C. 1423) as the foundation of its language.

The problem is that this law only recognizes those Lao veterans who became U.S. citizens through the 2000 Act, excluding those who obtained citizenship through other legal means prior to that year.

Additionally, few Minnesotans realize that while Hmong veterans made significant contributions to the conflict in Southeast Asia, they were not the only ethnic group involved. Ethnic Lowland Lao and Lao Theung tribesmen actually comprised approximately 65% of all SGU—Special Guerrilla Unit—forces in Laos.

Minnesota is now home to many of these allies who risked their lives in support of American military operations.

Furthermore, the redefinition of a veteran in SF 568 is specific to Lao/Hmong veterans. This unfairly excludes other allied veterans residing in Minnesota who served during the conflicts in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, often in clandestine missions directed by the CIA and U.S. military. Many of these veterans continue to honor their secrecy oaths, which may explain why their service is not widely recognized today.

Recommended Improvements

  • Expand eligibility to include all naturalized veterans of Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnamese irregular forces—regardless of when or how they became U.S. citizens.
  • Ensure that service determinations are made by qualified individuals familiar with the complexities of the Secret War and related conflicts.

Specifically, Minnesota Should:

  • Appoint a former U.S. government employee with direct experience in Laos and the Vietnam War as a special advisor to the Commissioner of Veterans Affairs. This advisor should:
    • Review all service determinations
    • Verify claimed service using available records
    • Collaborate with an advisory committee that includes at least one ethnic Lowland Lao or Lao Theung, one ethnic Hmong veteran, and other allied veterans who fought secretly in Southeast Asia

These changes would ensure that Minnesota properly recognizes all of our Lao and Southeast Asian allies who served honorably—not just those who became citizens through a specific law or belong to a particular ethnic group.

Minnesota has long honored military service and sacrifice. Let us ensure that state law reflects the full diversity of those who stood alongside Americans during one of history’s most complex conflicts.

Sincerely,

Thomas Leo Briggs
CIA Operations Officer GS-15 (Ret)
Special Operations Officer, Laos 1970–1972
President, Coalition Asian Veterans of the Vietnam War (cavwv.org)
Author, Cash on Delivery: CIA Special Operations During the Secret War in Laos

Associated Veterans of Minnesota

April 3, 2025

The undersigned Veteran Associations of Minnesota would like to express our thoughts and concerns about House File 1845 and Senate File 568 titled Veteran, Redefined.

It is important to note that we are just now learning of this important legislation that affects all United States Veterans living in Minnesota. We are a bit dismayed that no one approached us to give our opinion of the bills in question before now.

The Department of Veteran Affairs, neither State Legislature Veterans Committees, nor the authors and cosponsors of these bills had made us aware or asked our opinion on its language. We hope our opinions are not too late to be considered by the State Legislature and all those who determine the passage of these bills.

We have two important points we would like the State of Minnesota to be made aware of:

  1. We noticed that this legislation pertains to the Hmong Veterans only and does not mention any of the other ethnic allies we served with during the Vietnam War. This is objectionable to us. We believe and insist that Minnesota must recognize and honor all veterans who we served with without prejudice or favor. This is an American principle we will not yield from.
  2. We believe the bill has significant flaws that must be remedied before action is taken for passage. We have identified several issues of concern and flaws in the language. We ask for your thoughtful consideration of those expressed. Those questions and issues are found below.

As this legislation stands today, we cannot support it, and we would recommend the bill be tabled until remedies can be found for the flaws and issues we have identified. We also insist that all our allies are included.

Thank you for your thoughtful consideration of our opinions and concerns.

Sincerely,

  • Ron Lachelts
    United States Army Special Forces Chapter 20
    Minneapolis, MN

  • Trudell Guerue
    173rd Airborne Brigade, Minnesota Chapter
    Minneapolis, MN

  • Tim Kirk
    Midwest All Airborne Alliance
    Minneapolis, MN

  • Thomas Briggs
    CAVWV, Coalition of Allied Vietnam War Veterans
    Saint Paul, MN

  • Hoeun Hach
    Sons and Daughters of Cambodia
    Saint Paul, MN

  • Insixiegmay Khao
    Royal Lao Armed Forces and SGU
    Brooklyn Park, MN

  • Ananh Saenvilay
    Royal Lao Airborne Association
    Brooklyn Center, MN

  • Hoc Nguyễn
    Army of the Republic of Vietnam Veteran Fellowship
    Saint Paul, MN
Analysis and identified issues

Minnesota House File 1845, Senate File 568

Sec. 1. Veteran, Defined

General Undefined Factors to Consider

  • Is this legislation exclusively only for Hmong Veterans and therefore discriminatory to all other ethnic allies who were recruited, trained, and fought alongside the U.S. Military and CIA now residing in Minnesota?
  • What is the purpose of the redefinition? (Undefined)
  • Is it for recognition of the Hmong military service during the war by the State of Minnesota?
    (The Hmong have had a plethora of resolutions over the decades recognizing the Hmong Veterans in general and specifically individually.)
  • Is it to provide medical and all other benefits afforded U.S. Military Veterans?
    (If so, this is not specified in the language.)
  • (Line 1.17) Does this bill pertain only to Hmong Veterans currently residing in Minnesota, or will it include other Hmong Veterans who may immigrate to Minnesota in the future?
  • Is this bill designed to exclude other allies that performed similar service during the Vietnam Conflict and now reside in Minnesota?
    (Is this bill designed to gain higher status only for the Hmong, which is a cultural trait that may perpetuate discrimination through status elevation—an emotional form of bigotry, prejudice, and racism carried over from their time in Laos?)

Specific Undefined Elements of the Bill to Consider

  • (Line 1.18) Has the author fully examined and understood the limits of the Hmong Naturalization Act of 2000? (Public Law 106-207 – 8 USC 1423)
  • Note the limitations and confusion in this Act. When the Reconciliation Act of 2018 was enacted, it provided burial benefits to both Lao and Hmong veterans using this law as the determining identifier. The Veterans Administration has struggled with this, often denying burial benefits to many deserving veterans during pre-burial applications.
  • Visit: Hmong Burial Controversy to learn more about the confusion and implications of the Act.
  • Visit: Analysis, Rationale, and Research to explore detailed analysis and remedy proposals used in the 2024 amendment, which provided benefits for all Lao and Hmong veterans—but still omitted other ethnic allies sworn to secrecy.
  • Public Law 106-207 (8 USC 1423) omits Hmong veterans who immigrated to the U.S. before the year 2000.
  • It also contains conflicting language when defining what SGU and irregular forces in Laos are.
  • (Line 1.20) HF1845 assigns the responsibility of identifying veterans to the Commissioner of Veterans Affairs, based on federal and state laws—potentially leading to unequal determinations of qualification.
  • HF1845 does not set an age limitation; some younger Hmong men believe they qualify as veterans simply by being born in Laos or Thailand, even though they were too young to serve during the conflict.
  • (Line 1.21) How is "a base in Laos" defined? There were no official United States bases in Laos.
  • (Line 1.22) “In support of the armed forces of the United States” — The reality is that the U.S. supported the Hmong and Lao in defending their own country from Communist aggression. The Hmong did not serve as a U.S. proxy army.

Sec. 2. Advisory Task Force Established

  • (Line 2.5) Define “Secret War”: Where does this term originate, and in what context is it used? While the phrase sounds romantic and provocative, the conflict in Laos is more accurately described as the Communist War of Agression in Laos. Journalists coined the term “Secret War” to highlight U.S. involvement that contradicted the Geneva Accords.
  • There were many secret and clandestine U.S.-led missions involving irregular forces in Laos (SGU), Cambodia (MGU), and Vietnam (OPLAN 34 Alpha). Minnesota is home to some of these unrecognized veterans who must be acknowledged.
  • (Line 2.5) How will “knowledgeable individuals” be determined for this task force? Many veterans have passed, and Minnesota schools don’t teach about the Vietnam War or the role of ethnic groups other than the Hmong. What criteria will be used to assess knowledge?
  • (Line 2.6) What base or bases does this refer to?
  • (Line 2.9) Minnesota Statutes, section 197.447, clause (2) does not include or mention Hmong in any part.

This legislation requires more thorough vetting, and the conflicts outlined above must be resolved before it is passed.

Stephen B. Young
406 Wacouta Street, Unit 414
St. Paul, Minnesota 55101

April 15, 2025

Dear Minnesota Senators and Representatives,

I write to put the legislators of Minnesota on notice of attempts to unfairly privilege one ethnicity over other, perhaps more deserving ones, as we remember the 50th anniversary of the end of the Vietnam War this coming April 30th with the fall of Saigon.

First, let me say something about myself so that you can better judge the validity of my reasoning. I served in South Vietnam as a civilian working for the village development and counter-insurgency program called Civil Operations and Rural Development Support (CORDS), a special part of the Military Assistance Command Vietnam. I still speak Vietnamese with acceptable fluency. In early April 1975—exactly 50 years ago—I persuaded some friends still working in the State Department and National Security Council to propose and execute a resettlement program for Vietnamese nationalists threatened with persecution and duress under any regime imposed by the invading army loyal to Communist North Vietnam.

In 1978, I was a member of the small Citizens Commission for Indochinese Refugees which visited refugee camps in Thailand—Vietnamese, Hmong, and Cambodian—to return to Washington and successfully persuade the Carter Administration and the Congress to make into law the Refugee Act of 1980. Minnesota’s own Walter Mondale became a champion of that effort. Thus, one might say I had a hand in the coming to Minnesota of every refugee from South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

With respect to the Hmong, I was perhaps the closest American friend of General Vang Pao from 1980 until his death in 2011. I was also political advisor to General Vang Pao, working closely with him and the clan leaders on issues of assimilation and foreign policy. I introduced General Vang Pao and the clan leaders to then Lieutenant Bob Fletcher of the St. Paul Police Department so that Hmong families could cooperate closely with the police in preventing the emergence of youth gangs within the Hmong community—an effort that was most successful.

With respect to the Cambodians, in 1989, working in a study group of the Council on Foreign Relations with then-retired General John Vessey of Minnesota, former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, I proposed a plan to install an interim United Nations trusteeship administration in Cambodia to put an end to the Killing Fields. The plan was implemented and the killings stopped.

Now the legislature is being asked by a number of elected Hmong Americans, clients of the Democrat-Farmer-Labor Party, to disproportionately award public money to some in the Hmong community and to exclusively provide Hmong former soldiers with the privileged status of veteran, omitting Americans with Vietnamese, Cambodian, or Lao ancestry who also fought for the freedom of their countries. This discrimination does not embody the equality promised by our Declaration of Independence. Nor does it reflect the equitable principles we Americans fought and sacrificed for in the Vietnam War and still cherish.

And how well does this ethnic favoritism align with the contemporary progressive principles of diversity, equity, and inclusion?

The Cambodians suffered the most heinously of all the Indochinese people after the Communist victory. The nationalist Vietnamese Army in South Vietnam was far larger than and engaged in much more ferocious combat (nationalist tanks, heavy artillery, regimental and division-scale ground fighting) than did the much smaller Hmong special guerrilla units, valiant and skilled as they were, under General Vang Pao’s command. The Vietnamese nationalists had over 2 million men in their armed forces and village self-defense units. The number of Vietnamese nationalists killed in the war—civilian and military—was in the order of 500,000 persons. Ethnic Lao also were recruited by their own government and by the Americans to fight against invading North Vietnamese and their Lao collaborators.

I can speak for General Vang Pao in reporting to you that he would never support such discrimination against those he valued as allies of his Hmong people, as I was his close friend and advisor for 30 years. I had many discussions with General Vang Pao on Hmong relationships—good and bad—with Vietnamese and Lao and on what the Khmer Rouge did to their own people in Cambodia.

The Vietnam War was a war of people who believed in freedom no matter what their ethnicity, just as we Americans do against an oppressive and cruel neo-colonial ideology coming from France—Marxist-Leninism. We Americans supported their rightful struggle for human rights with courage, goodwill, and honor.

All who, during and after the Vietnam War, so stood up for what was right and just should be remembered today, and all their sacrifices and losses should be honored with respect and dignity.

Sincerely yours,

Stephen B. Young

Ha Tuong Ed.D
10335 Oak Grove Circle
Bloomington, Minnesota 55431

To: Governor Timothy Walz and the State of Minnesota Legislature

Referring to Minnesota Senate File 568, Veteran defined and the Congressional Gold Medal to the Hmong People introduced by Sen. Amy Klobuchar.

In my opinion, these efforts are examples of ethnic discrimination.

These efforts favor one ethnic group over at least three specific others; the Lao Loum, the Khmer and the South Vietnamese who have immigrated in great numbers to Minnesota and yet others; like the Thai, Koreans, Australians, New Zealanders, the Taiwanese, who also have populations here as well, to name a few. It is an insult to other Southeast Asian Allies to ignore their sacrifices and elevate only the Hmong.

It is well documented that the numbers of Southeast Asian casualties during and the four years after the conflict is immense, well over 4 million lives extinguished. Politically motivated efforts such as these diminish the sacrifices other allies suffered during this time of conflict not to mention the United States military.

In my opinion this is obviously ethnic racism! Here are my reasons.

It is true that Hmong warriors were extremely brave combatants during the war in Mountainous Region Military Region 2 (Hmong assigned jurisdiction) in Laos. There were five military regions in Laos occupied by Lao Loum (by far the largest in population), Lao Throng and other ethnic populations. Only a portion of Military Region 2 had Hmong. The Hmong regular and irregular forces defended the United States Air Force TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) radar stations which were operated by “sheep dipped” personnel (U.S. military members temporarily assigned civilian status for covert operations). Several battles involving Hmong units and the Pathet Lao (Communist Lao) and North Vietnamese for example, The Battle of Plain of the Jars and the Battle of Long Tieng (LS-20) or Skyline Ridge, were reinforced by Special Guerilla Units (SGU) from the Lao Loum areas of Military Regions 1, 3, 4 and the Lao Loum and Lao Thoung from Military Region 2. Without these Lao Loum SGU unit reinforcements the Hmong would have most certainly been defeated and perhaps destroyed. During the Battle of Long Tieng for example if not for the Thai PARU and the Lao Loum from Military Regions 1 and 2 that Battle would have certainly been lost and the Hmong destroyed. This is well documented by CIA case officer James ‘Mule” Parker in his book “The Battle for Skyline Ridge”.

Nevertheless, The United States had covert training camps manned by United States Special Forces in Thailand. These covert training camps such as the Lopburi, Phitsanulok and Ban Na camps, trained Thai, Lao Loum and Hmong fighters. Road Watch teams from Military Region 3 and 4 were often assisted by covert South Vietnamese teams from I, II and III Corps from South Vietnam. These teams operated along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The Hmong which have been widely reported as operating on the Trail, as cited in the Congressional Gold Medal Resolution, in fact never set foot anywhere close to the Ho Chi Minh Trail. This is documented by CIA Station Chief Richard Holm who was assigned in Laos from 1962–1964. The Hmong were far north of where the trail enters Laos. These are false attributions which diminish those Lao Loum and Vietnamese who did. Statements like the Hmong fought side by side the United States are also false. The United States Military never performed any operations in Laos in accordance with the Geneva Accords of 1962.

In my opinion the demographic statistics used to support the language in the resolution and bill are inflated to influence their Hmong constituencies.

For example: in late 1970, only 25,000 Hmong (not 150,000) were admitted into the United States other than the 2,500 military personnel that accompanied Gen. Vang Pao immediately following the United States withdrawal. In the two years that the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1975, that Act allowed only 200,000 refugees from Cambodia (Khmer Rouge genocide) and South Vietnam to enter the United States. No Lao or Hmong in great numbers were admitted until mid to late 1970s. I was the Coordinator for the Minneapolis Public Schools 7–12 ESL Bilingual program from 1976–1982 so I know the demographics. In addition the cited 2023 demographic of 94,000 is unfounded if based on 2020 census as stated in the Congressional Gold Medal press release.

Correcting the Gold Medal Resolution citations:

North Vietnam never had the capability of bombing anywhere in Laos (or Cambodia and Vietnam), as described in the resolution.

Distorting the truth as many have claimed are verifiably false.

Many Hmong groups, including the younger and better educated American Hmong who can do research, have questions about Hmong Studies Curriculums in Minnesota.

Hmong SGUs did not serve “along side with American troops” as stated in the press release because there were no United States Military “boots on the ground” in Laos. The Hmong served in both regular and irregular military units under the command of Gen. Vang Pao, a Royal Lao Armed Forces Commander. The Royal Lao Government was assisted by the United States in a variety of ways. For example, the Central Intelligence Agency, Military Assistance Command Vietnam–Laos (MACV-Laos), Air America, and military members temporarily assigned civilian status for covert operations to name a few.

It is true that some Hmong T28 pilots were members of the Royal Lao Air Force but there were also Lao Loum and at least one ethnic Khmu pilot as well. This fact is often omitted. These pilots were not irregular SGU combatants but were regular Royal Lao Armed Forces members. Any SGU legislation honoring Hmong and Lao omits these pilots as a matter of fact. The SGUs did not have an Air Force. In the same way, some Hmong pilots, who have stated they had fought near the Ho Chi Minh Trail, were actually small integrated members of the Royal Lao Air Force which operated in Military Region 3 and 4 under Royal Lao Armed Forces command. Other ground military members who monitored North Vietnamese Army movements in MR 3 and 4, planted electronic listening devices along the Ho Chi Minh Trail as part of the “Road Watch Operations”. These teams were made of Lao Loum and South Vietnamese Commandos of Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Special Operations Group (MACV SOG) and the Army of the Republic of Vietnam – ARVN Strategic Technical Directorates not Hmong.

Over 58,300 American service personnel sacrificed their lives in Vietnam during the war. It is a serious sacrilege to not mention or minimize their sacrifices in any way in these Vietnam War Resolutions.

In my opinion this legislation and resolution was written based on a foundation of non-serious historical research and faulty factual documentation, it is rather based on folkloric fantasized oral history. Hmong Studies in many schools are mostly based on collecting adult oral stories and not on hard facts. To base law on oral history is dangerous and unprofessional.

Note: The Hmong culturally relied on oral history as the means to teach the generations of their culture as they did not have any written language until the early 1970s. The majority of the adults in the 1970s were illiterate.

I served as a full time teacher who taught thousands of Southeast Asian immigrants of age 12–21 for 6 years in Minneapolis School District. I helped design curriculum, staff development, textbooks, parental guidance, and I taught ESL to adults of age 18–65 in the evenings for at least two decades, so I know their populations, needs, acculturation, politics, aspirations well. The Hmong people as I know them are honest, peaceful, eager to help, polite and determined to become constructive citizens. But so are the Lao, Khmer and Vietnamese.

I believe the former Hmong military did not make up stories when they participated in Hmong Studies programs: their lack of western culture, updated knowledge and basic education put them behind. They had no idea what or where the Ho Chi Minh Trail meant or was, so any encountering with the North Vietnamese Army wherever in Laos was the same as fighting on the Ho Chi Minh Trail to them. The question must be asked therefore; were there any Hmong soldier in Military Region 3. The answer is no. If there were no Hmong in Military Region 3 who operated there? The answer is the Royal Lao Armed Forces and the Lao Loum Special Guerrilla Units (SGU). Did Hmong pilots in the Royal Lao Air Force T28’s mean the Hmong had fighter planes? The answer is no. The modern world was very confusing for the early Hmong immigrants to the United States having just come from the remote mountains of Laos.

Many problems and issues arise when Hmong activists have taken advantage of the non-Hmong Legislators’ lack of knowledge and confusion about the Vietnam and Secret War in Laos. Hmong centric activists who mislead others by omission, deliberate misinformation or ignorance about the war must stop. It's time the Vietnam War history is clarified and misinformation corrected. Let’s make sure all are treated fairly. No one who deserves it should be left out. Isn’t that the job of our government's policy makers who embrace and teach the notion: “Of the People, by the People and for the People”?

I wonder what the 1.73 million Vietnamese-Americans in the United States think about this favoritism? Or, perhaps the 276,000 Cambodians? Or, the 270,000 Hmong? And the 260,000 Laotians? Not to mention the United States Military and CIA who served covertly and openly with these Allies.

It is important to recognize the heroic efforts and sacrifices of all Southeast Asians. It is also of the utmost importance to do so in a fair way. Let all heroes of the Republic of Vietnam, the Khmer, Laos, the Hmong and the hill tribes of the Montagnard enjoy the well deserved accolades as the Hmong have enjoyed since emigrating to the United States during this 50th Commemoration year of the ending of the Vietnam War.

It’s about time.

I close with this old Vietnamese proverb: One tree cannot make a forest; the strength of the United States in uniting many trees.

Dr. Ha Tuong
Former ARVN officer 1972–1975
Head Teacher of Mpls Public Schools 6–12 ESL Bilingual Title VII 1976–1982
High School Principal 1992–2006
Vietnam War researcher / author / lecturer 2008–current

February 24, 2025

The Honorable Chairman Senator Aric Putman
3215 Senate Office Building
Saint Paul, Minnesota 55155

The Honorable Ranking Member Senator Bruce Anderson
2209 Senate Office Building
Saint Paul, MN 55155

Members of the Senate Veterans Committee

Subject: Regarding Senate File 568

As an introduction, my name is Khao Insixiengmay, born in Savannahket, Laos in 1944. I am a former Special Guerrilla Unit (SGU) Colonel and Commander of SGU Groupe Mobile (GM) 33, a regimental size unit recruited, trained, supported and directed by CIA case officers in Laos. Currently I am a US citizen living in Brooklyn Park, MN.

I received my Military training in Laos, France and in the U.S. In the United States I went through the English Advanced Class to learn U.S. Military terminology at Lackland Airforce Base, TX. At the U.S. Army Armor School, Fort Knox, KY I went through the Special Leadership Course which is like Officer Basic Training. Furthermore, I attended the Infantry Officer Advanced Course at Fort Benning, GA which helped me to become a strong unit commander.

Due to my special skills and capacities, I was recruited on March 18, 1968, by SGU Headquarters from the Royal Lao Army to serve with the Special Guerrilla Units, a surrogate of the US Government. I fought in many battles throughout the Kingdom of Laos. I fought two battles in MR2 supporting the beleaguered Hmong under the commander of General Vang Pao to protect the Hmong from being vanished by the communists. The first battle was in 1969. I was wounded, nearly died, and was hospitalized at the U.S. Air Forces Hospital, Udon, Thailand. The second battle in March of 1972 to penetrate the Plain of Jars with the intention to do the (search and destroy operation).

It is my great intention to inform the members of the Senate Veterans Committee about the proposed SF 568 legislation which cites The Hmong Veterans’ Naturalization Act of 2000. I want to clarify this act.

Please read Doctor Yang Dao’s letter addressed to Senator Orin Hatch Chair U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, dated May 6, 2000.

“Dear Senator Hatch,
I am writing to show my support to the HR 371 related to the naturalization of aliens who served with Special Guerrilla Unit or irregular forces in Laos. I strongly believe that those who fought side by side with the United of America during the Vietnam War should be rewarded for their sacrifices they had endured for the cause of Freedom and Democracy in Southeast Asia and in the world.

I am a Hmong from Laos. I received my Ph. D. in social science from the Sorbonne University of Paris, France in 1972. From 1972 to 1975, I served the Royal Lao Government successively as a Director of Human Resource Planning Department in the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, and as a member of the National Political Council of Coalition (Laotian Congress) during the Coalition Government in Laos. Like hundreds of thousands of my countrymen, I came to know the road of exile after the take over of my country by the communists Pathet Laos in May 1975. I am now a U.S. citizen living in Brooklyn Park, Minnesota.

After serving the University of Minnesota, Hamline University and Metropolitan University for more than one decade, I currently work as an assistant Director of the Communication and Public Information in Saint Paul Public School.

I urge you to use your influence to make the H.R. 371 and S 890 become laws which will ease the process for our Laotian veterans by eliminating the English language which constitutes a major obstacle toward their process of becoming U.S. citizen.

(Khao Insixiengmay taught the citizenship class for the Lao community and was a Supreme Court from 1997 to 2012.) However, I would like to remind you that in my terminology of “Laotian”, I would like to include Hmong, Lao, Khmu, Mien, Lue, Thai-Dam and Iko and other Laotian ethnic groups who have fought with special Guerrilla Units or irregular forces in Laos. Those irregular forces were present in Military Region I, Military Region II, Military Region III and Military Region IV.

To determine who is eligible for the process of naturalization, I would propose that an independent commission should be established to verify the identity of these Laotian veterans. This commission should be composed of representatives from the C.I.A. the state department, the immigration and Naturalization Services, and different groups of Lao, Hmong, Khmu, Mien, Lue, Thai-Dam and Iko veterans in the United States. Only a single group of Laotian veterans to certify the citizenship status would jeopardize the process of naturalization by providing corruption, fraud, distortion and injustice which will contribute to greater division among the veterans of all Laotian ethnic groups.

As a former member of the Laotian National Political Council, I urge you to do whatever in your power to make the process of naturalization the most equitable for all the Laotian veterans who are called to live in good spirits and relationship among themselves and the community at large. I have good connections with all these Laotian ethnic groups in the United States.

With great respect, Yang Dao

I would like to inform you about what I did previously to support Senate File 568 relating to veterans; expanding the definition of the term veteran; establishing an advisory task force; amending Minnesota Statutes 2024, section 197.447.

Senate File 568 cites the Hmong Veterans’ Naturalization Act of 2000 (Public Law 106-207, *U.S.C.1423) as an identifier to those eligible to be redefined.

Here are some very difficult suggestions to Congress and to the US government:

On Monday, February 10, 2014, we: Colonel Khao Insixiengmay, former SGU GM 33 along with Mr. Thomas Leo Briggs, former CIA case officer, Road watch Team 300, James Bruton Ret. U.S. Special Forces and ex-CIA case officer, Mr. Pang Mua former interpreter for the SGUs, and Mr. Pakou Hang SGU veteran from MR2, testified before the Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. We wanted the record to show that all Laos Veterans in MR1, MR2, MR3, and MR4 were trained, supported and directed by CIA case officers and their military advisors and that all Southeast Asian Special Guerrilla Units (SGUs), Road Watch Teams, Interpreters, and Operation Coordinators working with and for the CIA in the Kingdom of Laos during the Vietnam War were part of a single, united secret U.S. operation.

To learn more about details information can be found on: www.cavwv.org/hmong-burial-controversy.htm1

Please help us and take action to revise S.F. No. 568 to include all Southeast Asian veterans. A prompt adjustment would be appreciated.

Col. Khao Insixiengmay (Ret)
President of the United Royal Lao Armed Forces & Special Guerrilla Unit Veterans of the Vietnam War
Life US SFA member A-3828 of NC, and life member of US SFA Chapter XXXVIII
Former SGU Colonel, Interpreter, Instructor, Operations Assistant to the CIA in MR3
Former SGU Group Mobile 33 Commander

Dear Editor,

I am writing to highlight serious problems with Minnesota's current veterans benefits law (Minnesota SF 568) that unintentionally excludes many brave allies who fought alongside American forces during the Secret War in Laos.

The Problem: The current law only recognizes Lao veterans who were naturalized under the 2000 Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act. This excludes many veterans who became citizens before 2000 through other legal channels.

Additionally, few Minnesotans realize that while Hmong veterans made significant contributions, they were not the only ethnic group fighting in these special units. Ethnic Lao and Lao Theung tribesmen actually comprised approximately 65% of these irregular forces. All these brave allies risked their lives supporting American military operations.

Recommended Improvements:

  • Expand eligibility to include all naturalized veterans of Lao irregular forces, regardless of when or how they became citizens.
  • Require that determinations about service be made by qualified individuals who understand the complex history of this secret conflict. Specifically, Minnesota should:
    • Appoint a former U.S. government employee with direct experience in the Secret War as a special advisor to the Commissioner of Veterans Affairs.

This advisor should:

  • Review all service determinations
  • Verify claimed service using available records
  • Work with an advisory committee that includes at least one ethnic Lao or Lao Theung veteran and one ethnic Hmong veteran from these special forces.

These changes would ensure Minnesota properly recognizes all our Lao allies who served honorably — not just those who became citizens through a specific law or belong to a particular ethnic group.

Minnesota has long valued military service and sacrifice. Let's make sure its laws reflect the true diversity of those who fought alongside Americans in one of history's most complex conflicts.

Sincerely,

Thomas Leo Briggs
CIA Operations Officer GS-15 (Ret)
Special Operations Officer, Laos 1970–1972
President, Coalition Asian Veterans of the Vietnam War (cavwv.org)
Author, Cash on Delivery: CIA Special Operations During the Secret War in Laos

Links to other written testimony

Section II - Legilative Hearings including verbal testimony

Minnesota House of Representatives
Link to the House Veterans Committee Hearing;
​Minnesota House Veterans and Military Affairs Division, April 2, 2025 Hearing
Minnesota State Senate
Link to the Senate Veterans Hearing:
Link to the Senate State and Local Government Hearing: on SF568 - 
https://www.lrl.mn.gov/media/file?mtgid=1051265
Link to the Senate Finance Committee Hearing: on SF568 - April 10, 2025
https://www.youtube.com/live/xJNOC3G9b1U?si=M-F_IavUJzO0GJj0

Written testimony with regard to SF1959 to be heard in Conference Committee on May 8, 2025


May 7, 2025


To:      Members of the State of Minnesota Veteran Affairs House and Senate Conference Committee     

For The Record - Submitted Testimony

Senate File 1959
Sec. 6. [197.448] VETERAN OF THE SECRET WAR IN LAOS. 


Executive Summary for Legislators
This well-intended legislation can not be fairly administered and needs targeted revisions to properly honor Hmong and other ethnic veterans who served as critical US surrogates in Laos and Southest Asia during the Vietnam Conflict.
Key Facts
  • Bill passed bipartisan support
  • Recognizes Lao and Hmong fighters who served as surrogates for US forces in Laos (1961-1975). 
  • Omits other equally deserving ethnic allies 
  • Creates an advisory task force tasked with identifying qualified veterans for benefits.


Critical Issues Requiring Immediate Attention
1. Contradictory Eligibility Criteria
  • Restricts eligibility to those naturalized within a specific 4-year window as provided by the Hmong Veterans Naturalization Act of 2000.
  • Appears to qualify any US citizen or permanent resident
  • Solution: Clarify which criterion takes precedence


2. Military Awards Misunderstanding
  • References Medal of Honor and Purple Heart eligibility
  • These awards were exclusively for US Armed Forces members, not foreign nationals
  • Solution: Replace with reference to CIA recognition or other applicable honors


3. Verification Process Lacks Appropriate Expertise
  • Task force lacks members with direct knowledge of CIA operations in Laos or Southeast Asia.
  • No CIA operations officers with experience included
  • Solution: Add at least one former CIA officer with direct experience supervising Laotian and or Southeast Asian operations


4. The CIA Connection Problem
  • Commissioner of veterans affairs tasked with verification but lacks access to CIA records
  • CIA maintained limited documentation of individual participants
  • Solution: Establish coordination protocol with federal agencies


5. Addressing Constitutional Equal Protection Concerns
  • Changing the title from "VETERAN OF THE SECRET WAR IN LAOS" to "VETERANS OF COVERT OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA" to be more inclusive of all ethnic groups who served. 
  • Removing specific reference to the Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act as the primary qualification, instead incorporating it as one potential verification method among many. 
  • Expanding geographic coverage beyond Laos to include Cambodia and Vietnam, where similar covert operations occurred with various ethnic groups' participation. 
  • Creating a Task Force with diverse ethnic representation to ensure all communities have a voice in the verification process
    
Strategic Context
Lao, Hmong and other ethnic fighters served as critical surrogates for US forces, allowing American troops to remain in Vietnam. Their sacrifices deserve proper recognition, but the current verification process likely excludes legitimate veterans.

Recommendation & proposed amendment
This important legislation requires critical amendments to ensure it effectively identifies and honors the intended veterans. With adjustments to eligibility criteria and task force composition, this bill can become a model for other states with significant Southeast Asian populations.


________________________________________________________________________


An amendment to remedy the controversy in omitting other Southeast Asian Allies in Senate File 1959.

Section I - Introduction
Proposed Revision to SF 1959: An Inclusive Framework for Southeast Asian War Veterans
This revised proposal represents a balanced approach that honors the service and sacrifice of all ethnic groups who supported U.S. operations in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War era. By addressing the constitutional concerns regarding equal protection while creating practical verification mechanisms, Minnesota can lead the nation in properly recognizing these long-overlooked veterans.


The proposal maintains the spirit of the original bill while expanding its reach to be truly inclusive. It acknowledges the unique challenges of verifying service in covert operations while establishing safeguards to maintain the integrity of veteran status. Most importantly, it ensures that all who served supporting U.S. forces, regardless of ethnicity, receive the recognition and benefits they have earned through their sacrifice.


Before presenting the revised bill text, this summarizes the key improvements in this proposal. This revision addresses the 14th Amendment equal protection concerns by creating an inclusive framework that recognizes all ethnic groups who served supporting U.S. forces in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War era. It establishes a credible verification process that acknowledges the unique documentation challenges of covert operations while maintaining the integrity of veteran status. The proposal balances recognition of these veterans' sacrifices with practical implementation considerations.


Section II -  Original Bill as introduced - SF1959
Senate File 1959
Sec. 6. [197.448] VETERAN OF THE SECRET WAR IN LAOS.

Subdivision 1. Definition. 
As used in this section, the term "veteran of the Secret War in Laos" means a person who resides in this state and who:
    (1)was naturalized as provided in section 2(1) of the federal Hmong Veterans’ Naturalization Act of 2000, Public Law 106-207, or received a Medal of Honor, Purple Heart, or other military award for service in support of the armed forces of the United States in Laos; or

[NOTE-1: Foreign nationals who are not members of the U.S. armed forces are generally not eligible for the Medal of Honor or Purple Heart as these decorations are specifically designated for U.S. military personnel. 
    The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government and is presented to members of the U.S. armed forces who distinguish themselves through "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of life above and beyond the call of duty." By statute (10 U.S.C. §7271), it is limited to members of the U.S. armed forces.
    Similarly, the Purple Heart is awarded specifically to members of the U.S. armed forces who are wounded or killed in action against an enemy of the United States. The current eligibility criteria for the Purple Heart require the recipient to be a member of the U.S. armed forces. 
        Foreign nationals who served with irregular forces, special guerrilla units, or as allies in operations like those in Laos during the Secret War would not typically qualify for these U.S. military decorations, even if they served alongside or in support of U.S. forces.
        For foreign nationals who supported U.S. military operations, there are other recognitions that may be awarded:
    1.Foreign decorations from their own governments
    2.CIA or other agency-specific recognition for covert operations
    3.Certificates of appreciation or other acknowledgments from the U.S. government
    4.State-level recognition (like what Minnesota is considering)
This is why alternative verification methods are particularly important for state-level recognition, as these veterans would not typically have U.S. military decorations to verify their service. 
END NOTE-1]

(2) is a person who the commissioner of Veterans Affairs determines served honorably with a special guerrilla unit or with irregular forces that operated from a base in Laos in support of the armed forces of the United States at any time during the period beginning February 28, 1961, and ending May 14, 1975, and is a citizen of the United States or an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence in the United States.

NOTE-2: The covert military operations involving foreign nationals in Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia during the Vietnam Era (1961-1975] were conducted under the direction of the CIA or MACV. Therefore, the commissioner of Veteran Affairs is not able to determine the service of such foreign nationals unless that commissioner obtains the full support of the Director, CIA, and Secretary of Defense. However, neither organization made or retained records of individual service by foreign nationals. END NOTE-2]

[NOTE-3: In determining who is a “veteran of the Secret War in Laos,” the final sentence in (2) above negates the need to reference the Hmong Veterans’ Naturalization Act of 2000, Public Law 106-207 in (1) above because this bill specifies any person that served honorably with a special guerrilla unit or with irregular forces that operated from a base in Laos in support of the armed forces of the United States at any time during the period beginning February 28, 1961, and ending May 14, 1975, is a veteran. END NOTE-3]

Subdivision. 2. Eligibility for benefits and privileges. 
   (a) A veteran of the Secret War in Laos, as defined in subdivision 1, clause (1), is entitled to the benefits and privileges listed in paragraph (c) the day following the effective date of this act.
    (b) A veteran of the Secret War in Laos, as defined in subdivision 1, clause (2), is entitled to the benefits and privileges listed in paragraph (c) after the commissioner verifies the person's veteran status. By March 30, 2026, the commissioner must:
        (1) adopt criteria and a protocol to determine eligibility under subdivision 1, clause (2), based upon the recommendations of the Veterans of Secret Guerrilla Units and Irregular Forces in Laos Advisory Task Force; and
    (2) begin accepting applications for verification.
    (c) The following statutory benefits and privileges available to a veteran, as defined in section 197.447, are also available to a veteran of the Secret War in Laos:
    1. section 171.07, subdivision 15 (veteran designation on drivers' licenses and state identification cards);
    2.section 197.23 (purchase of grave markers); 
    3.section 197.231 (honor guards); 
    4.section 197.236 (state veterans cemeteries); 
    5.section 197.455 (veterans preference); 
    6.section 197.4551 (permissive preference for veterans in private employment); 
    7.section 197.55 (quarters for meetings of veterans organizations); 
    8.section 197.56 (use of quarters); 
    9.section 197.63 (vital records, certified copies); 
    10.section 197.65 (renewal of professional license, motor vehicle registration, and driver's license); and 
    11.section 197.987 (honor and remember flag).

Section III - Amendment remedying flawed language

Sec. 6. [197.448] VETERANS OF COVERT OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA.

Subdivision 1. Definition.
As used in this section, the term "veteran of covert operations in Southeast Asia" means a person who resides in this state and who:
(1) is determined by the Southeast Asian Allied Veterans Verification Task Force established under subdivision 3 to have served honorably with special guerrilla units, irregular forces, or clandestine operations that supported the armed forces of the United States at any time during the period beginning February 28, 1961, and ending May 14, 1975, in Laos, Cambodia, or Vietnam; and
(2) is a citizen of the United States or an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence in the United States.


Subd. 2. Benefits and Privileges. 
(a) A veteran of covert operations in Southeast Asia is entitled to the benefits and privileges listed in paragraph (c) after the Task Force verifies the person's veteran status.
(b) By March 30, 2026, the Commissioner of Veterans Affairs must:
   (1) establish the Southeast Asian Allied Veterans Verification Task Force as described in subdivision 3;
   (2) adopt criteria and protocols for determining eligibility under subdivision 1, based upon the recommendations of the Task Force; and
   (3) begin accepting applications for verification.
(c) The following statutory benefits and privileges available to a veteran, as defined in section 197.447, are also available to a veteran of covert operations in Southeast Asia: section 171.07, subdivision 15 (veteran designation on drivers' licenses and state identification cards); section 197.23 (purchase of grave markers); section 197.231 (honor guards); section 197.236 (state veterans cemeteries); section 197.455 (veterans preference); section 197.4551 (permissive preference for veterans in private employment); section 197.55 (quarters for meetings of veterans organizations); section 197.56 (use of quarters); section 197.63 (vital records, certified copies); section 197.65 (renewal of professional license, motor vehicle registration, and driver's license); and section 197.987 (honor and remember flag).

Subd. 3. Southeast Asian Allied Veterans Verification Task Force.
(a) The Southeast Asian Allied Veterans Verification Task Force is established to develop standards for verifying service and to review applications for verification as veterans of covert operations in Southeast Asia.
(b) The Task Force shall consist of seven members appointed by the Commissioner of Veterans Affairs:
   (1) One member representing the Minnesota Department of Veterans Affairs;
   (2) One member with direct experience in U.S. intelligence or special operations in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War era;
   (3) Four members representing different ethnic communities who served supporting U.S. forces, including but not limited to Hmong, Lao Loum, Lao Theung, Khmer, and Vietnamese allied forces; and
   (4) One member with expertise in the history of the Vietnam War era in Southeast Asia.
(c) In appointing members under paragraph (b), clauses (3) and (4), the Commissioner shall strive for diverse representation that reflects the various ethnic communities who supported U.S. operations in Southeast Asia.
(d) The Task Force shall develop and recommend to the Commissioner:
   (1) Standards and protocols for verifying service that acknowledges the classified nature of covert operations and limited documentation shall be produced twelve months from enactment;
   (2) A multi-source verification system that may include:
     (i) Statements from individuals with firsthand knowledge of the applicant's service;
     (ii) Historical records that establish the existence of units in which the applicant claims to have served;
     (iii) Community attestation from recognized community leaders; and
     (iv) Other evidence the Task Force deems reliable for verification purposes.
   (3) An appeals process for applicants whose verification is denied.
(e) the Task Force shall submit an annual report to the legislature on the number of applications received, approved, and denied, and any recommendations for improving the verification process.


Subd. 4. Expiration. 
  1. The Southeast Asian Allied Veterans Verification Task Force expires five (5) years from the date of enactment of this law. 
  2. This law expires on 31 December 2065.

_______________________________________________________________________


Companion Fact Sheet: 
Inclusive Recognition of Southeast Asian War Veterans
Background


  • U.S. covert operations during the Vietnam War era (1961–1975) relied heavily on local ethnic allies across Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
  • Operations directed by the CIA and MACV engaged irregular forces from diverse backgrounds.
Groups Who Served
  • Hmong (widely recognized)
  • Lao Loum, Lao Theung, Lao Sung (non-Hmong)
  • Vietnamese, Montagnards, Nung and ethnic Khmer
  • Khmer Serei, Kampuchea Krom
  • Other indigenous forces embedded in covert operations
Why Broader Recognition is Needed
  • Historical Accuracy: These groups operated under U.S. command and faced combat risks equal to those of Hmong veterans.
  • Legal Equity: Exclusion may conflict with the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution.
  • Moral Responsibility: Recognition should reflect sacrifice, not just documentation.
Problems with Current Language in SF1959
  • Refers only to Hmong Veterans’ Naturalization Act
  • Assumes eligibility for U.S. military honors like the Medal of Honor or Purple Heart, which are not applicable to foreign nationals
  • Omits the broader set of U.S.-directed allies
Solution Framework
  • Amend language to include all ethnic groups who served alongside U.S. forces
  • Use a multi-source verification process involving veteran, intelligence, and academic experts
  • Establish state-level recognition criteria appropriate for covert service
  • Implement an appeals and oversight mechanism for denied claims
Minnesota’s Opportunity
  • Be the first state to lead with a constitutional, inclusive recognition model
  • Build trust with Southeast Asian communities through comprehensive acknowledgment
  • Serve as a model for other states and possibly federal efforts
Endorsed by:
  • Coalition of Allied Afghan and Vietnam War Veterans (CAVWV)
  • 20th Special Forces Association
  • Southeast Asian Alliance






Section IV - Rationale for Proposed Changes
Addressing Constitutional Equal Protection Concerns


The revised bill eliminates potential 14th Amendment issues by:
  1. Changing the title from "VETERAN OF THE SECRET WAR IN LAOS" to "VETERANS OF COVERT OPERATIONS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA" to be more inclusive of all ethnic groups who served.
  2. Removing specific reference to the Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act as the primary qualification, instead incorporating it as one potential verification method among many.
  3. Expanding geographic coverage beyond Laos to include Cambodia and Vietnam, where similar covert operations occurred with various ethnic groups' participation.
  4. Creating a Task Force with diverse ethnic representation to ensure all communities have a voice in the verification process.
Addressing Verification Challenges
The proposal recognizes the unique documentation challenges faced by these veterans:
  1. Creating a specialized Task Force with subject matter expertise to develop appropriate verification standards for covert operations where documentation is limited46.
  2. Including members with direct experience in intelligence operations who can help authenticate claims of service.
  3. Establishing a multi-source verification system that does not rely solely on official U.S. military documentation.
  4. Including an appeals process to ensure due process for applicants4.
Balancing Recognition with Practical Implementation
The proposal:
  1. Maintains existing benefit eligibility as outlined in the original bill while creating a more robust verification process.
  2. Sets clear deadlines for implementation while allowing sufficient time to establish the Task Force and develop standards.
  3. Includes sunset provisions for the Task Force once the initial wave of verifications is complete.
  4. Requires annual reporting to the legislature to ensure transparency and accountability.
                                                                       
                                                                             Implementation Considerations
Verification Process Design
The verification process should be designed to accommodate the realities of covert operations while maintaining integrity:
  1. The Task Force should develop a "chain of honorable verification" where established veterans can vouch for others they served with, creating networks of verified service members.
  2. Historical unit records and deployment information could establish context for individual claims even when personal documentation is lacking.
  3. The Task Force should attempt to work with federal agencies to obtain any available declassified information about operations in Southeast Asia to aid verification.
Outreach and Education
For successful implementation:
  1. The Minnesota Department of Veterans Affairs should conduct targeted outreach to all Southeast Asian communities who may have members eligible under this legislation.
  2. Educational materials should be produced in multiple languages to ensure accessibility.
  3. The diverse nature of support for U.S. operations should be highlighted in public communications to build awareness of the contributions of all ethnic groups.
  4. Training should be provided to county veteran service officers to help them assist applicants from various ethnic backgrounds.

Section V - Excluded Allies and Units

Part I - Khmer / Cambodia
Khmer Mike Force
MACV’s Khmer MIKE Force refers to units within the Mobile Strike Force Command (MIKE Force) during the Vietnam War that were composed primarily of ethnic Khmer (Cambodian) fighters, including Kampuchea Krom (ethnic Khmers from South Vietnam’s Mekong Delta) and "Khmer Serei". These units were part of the broader "Civilian Irregular Defense Group (CIDG)" program, led by U.S. Army Special Forces and sometimes Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV) personnel, to conduct counterinsurgency operations against the Viet Cong (VC) and North Vietnamese Army.
Civilian Irregular Defence Group (CIDG)
The CIDG was a United States program initiated by the CIA in 1961 to organize and train ethnic Khmer and South Vietnamese irregular military units, primarily from ethnic minority groups like the Montagnards, to counter Viet Cong (VC) influence, especially in the Central Highlands. Many of these ethnic groups included the ethnic Khmer Kampuchea Krom. Several of these veterans call Minnesota home, among them, the Khmer Serei or Free Khmer.
Also referred to as the Cambodian Nationalist Guerrillas. They operated from bases in South Vietnam and Thailand. The Khmer Serei conducted guerrilla attacks against Cambodian Chief of State Norodom Sihanouk’s government, which they viewed as pro-Communist Vietnamese and authoritarian. They were supported by the CIA and South Vietnam, receiving training and arms to destabilize Sihanouk’s regime. Minnesota is home to many of these veterans.
White Scarves or The Kangsaing Sar
The White Scarves were a Khmer Krom militia formed in the late 1960s, led by Buddhist monk Samouk Sen.
During the Vietnam War, they allied with the United States. They were trained by the United States Special Forces in Mike Force Guerrilla Units (MGU) and served on covert missions into Cambodia, rooting out Communist Viet Cong sanctuaries. 
Saint Paul is the home of at least one of these Veterans. This term is associated with the Khmer Krom, an ethnic Khmer community residing in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam. The name "Kangsaing Sar" is Khmer for "White Scarves" (Vietnamese: Can Sen So). The Khmer Serei, an anti-communist Cambodian movement, had loose connections with the US-backed Front de Lutte du Kampuchea Krom militia, also known as the "White Scarves" (Kangsaing Sar). This suggests their activities were primarily within the context of the Cambodian and Southern Vietnamese conflicts during the Vietnam War era. They were a militia group, implying involvement in armed activities and potentially aligned with anti-communist forces in the region. Their operations were based in Southern Vietnam, within the historical homeland of the Khmer Krom people.

Part II - Kingdom of Laos
Lao Loum or Lowland Lao
Sixty-five % (65%) of all SGU units in Laos were Lao Loum and Lao Theung. These soldiers fought in all Military Regions in Laos.
Minnesota in now home to many of these former soldiers.
Large populations live in Saint Paul, Brooklyn Center, Brooklyn Park, Maple Grove, Minneapolis, Albertville, Rochester, and other cities in Minnesota.
Lao Sung or Highland Lao
Among these northern Lao tribal groups were the Hmong, Khmu, Lu-Mien (Yao), Akha, and Miao-Yao. They formed thirty-five % (35%) of all other SGU units, and were included within the northern Laos CIA irregular SGU battalions. They were trained by the United States Army Special Forces and the CIA in secret training camps in Thailand.
Minnesota is home to many of the Hmong and possibly the other northern Lao Sung tribes. and at least one United States Army Special Forces veteran who trained many of them in Thailand.

Part III - Republic of Vietnam or South Vietnam
Strategic Technical Directorate Naval Advisory Detachment
Covert mission specialists trained by the CIA to perform missions into North Vietnam, one notable operation was OPLAN 34 Alpha. Two of these mission specialists live in Saint Paul, who, incidentally, were captured, tortured, and imprisoned by the North Vietnamese Communists for 20 and 13 years.
One of the most infamous was the Hoa Lo Prison or "The Hanoi Hilton,” where POWs were incarcerated and tortured by Communist Cubans in the Nobi Room of torture.
The Vietnamese ARVN Rangers
Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) Rangers or Biệt Động Quân in Vietnamese, they were elite light infantry units of the South Vietnamese military during the Vietnam War (1955–1975). They were highly trained, versatile, and often deployed for special operations, counterinsurgency, and rapid-response missions against Viet Cong (VC) and North Vietnamese Army (NVA) forces. They were under the command of the ARVN General Staff but often worked closely with U.S. Special Forces, MACV (Military Assistance Command, Vietnam), and CIA advisors.
Several of these Veterans call Minnesota home now.
The Ethnic Chinese Nung
The Nung fighters during the Vietnam War were ethnic Nung, a minority group of primarily Chinese descent living in northern provinces of the Republic of Vietnam, particularly around Cao Bang, Quảng Ninh, and Lạng Sơn provinces. They were known for their fierce loyalty, combat prowess, and close collaboration with U.S. Special Forces, often serving as mercenaries, bodyguards, and camp guards for the South Vietnamese and American forces. 

Part IV - Others
Thailand
Thai Unity Volunteer Battalions & Thai Forward Air Guides
Thai Unity battalions provided a significant ground combat force in Laos, often operating alongside the indigenous CIA Irregular SGU battalions, while the Thai Forward Air Guides offered a critical link between ground forces and U.S. air power, enabling effective close air support in a complex and clandestine conflict. Both groups represent key facets of Thailand's deep, albeit often unacknowledged, involvement in the Vietnam War era conflicts in Indochina.
While often stiffened with a cadre of Thai Army trainers and medical specialists, the bulk of the force was made up of volunteers, giving them an "irregular" designation. These Thai battalions were often integrated with or operated alongside the CIA-backed Special Guerrilla Units (SGUs) composed of ethnic minorities within Laos. The Thai units often fell under the operational control of General Vang Pao, the leader of the Hmong forces in Military Region II in northern Laos and General Soutchay Vongsavanh, the leader of Lao and Lao Theung forces in Military Region IV in southern Laos.
Unlike the Thai Unity battalions, the Thai FAGs were recruited and employed directly by the CIA. Their primary role was to coordinate and direct U.S. Air Force airstrikes in combat zones within Laos. These Thai civilians underwent a brief but intensive training program conducted by U.S. Air Force Special Operations Combat Controllers to equip them with the necessary skills for forward air control. They were deployed to active battlefields in Laos, often in highly dangerous situations, to provide on-the-ground guidance for U.S. fighter jets and bombers. The unprecedented nature of foreign civilians coordinating U.S. air power highlights their vital contribution to the secret war. Some also saw service in Cambodia working with USAF Rustic Forward Air Controllers.
Taiwan
The terms "Black Bats" and "Black Cats" refer to two distinct, highly secretive Taiwanese Air Force squadrons that operated during the Cold War and were significantly involved in intelligence gathering, often in cooperation with the United States, including missions that extended into the Vietnam War era.
Black Bats (formerly the 34th Squadron):
  • Primary Role: Covert, low-altitude infiltration and exfiltration missions over mainland China. Tasks included dropping agents, psychological warfare leaflets, and collecting electronic intelligence (ELINT).
  • Timeframe: 1953–1967 (operations continued elsewhere until 1972).
  • Aircraft: B-17s, B-26s, RB-69As, C-123s, and C-130s.
  • Vietnam War Involvement: Special operations in Vietnam, sensor deployment, and communication line tapping.
  • Secrecy and Casualties: High-risk night missions with many aircraft and lives lost.
Black Cats (Formally the 35th Squadron):
  • Primary Role: High-altitude U-2 photographic reconnaissance over China to monitor military developments.
  • Timeframe: 1961–1974.
  • Aircraft: U-2 spy planes provided by the CIA.
  • Vietnam War Involvement: Intelligence gathered impacted U.S. strategy in Vietnam and Southeast Asia.
  • Secrecy and Risk: U-2s were shot down; missions masked as weather research flights.
In summary, both the Black Bats and Black Cats were elite Taiwanese Air Force units engaged in highly classified intelligence operations during the Cold War and the Vietnam War era. The Black Bats focused on low-level infiltration and diverse clandestine missions, including some in Vietnam, while the Black Cats specialized in high-altitude photographic reconnaissance primarily over China, with intelligence that had implications for the wider Cold War and Southeast Asian conflicts. Both squadrons operated with significant US support and faced considerable risks.


Respectfully submitted,
Thomas Leo Briggs
CIA Operations Officer GS-15 (Ret)
Special Operations Officer, Laos 1970-1972
President, Coalition of Allied Vietnam War Veterans (CAVWV.org)
Author, Cash on Deliver: CIA Special Operations During the Secret War in Laos

​

The Coalition of Allied Vietnam War Veterans is a former 501(c)3 non profit which ceased operating under that IRS status at the end of 2025 which was the 50th anniversary year of the ending of the Vietnam War.
It now operates as a Veteran Fellowship located in the State of Minnesota